The Pentateuch (from a Greek word meaning “five containers of scrolls”) presents the core of revealed truths about the origin of the universe and the human race, along with the early history, law, and religious constitution of the Hebrew people. For this reason, it is also called the Torah (Heb. “law”) and thus forms the backbone of Jewish law and religious life.

The Pentateuch includes the Books of Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy; its authorship has been traditionally attributed to Moses.

Genesis deals with the origin of the universe and the first human beings. It describes their original condition in the garden of paradise, the sin that results in their expulsion, and the promise of liberation that God makes to them (the Protoevangelium of Genesis 3:15). It also narrates the call of Abraham and God’s covenant with him, along with the story of the other Patriarchs, including Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. The book concludes with the entrance of the Hebrew people into Egypt because of the famine in Palestine and the death of Joseph.

Exodus recounts God’s revelation of His sacred name (YHWH) to Moses from the burning bush (see Exodus 3:14), His miraculous liberation of the people from Egypt through Moses and Aaron, and the celebration of the first Passover, which would have a great influence on the people of Israel throughout the centuries. It also narrates the Israelites’ sojourn in the Sinai desert, including their reception of the Ten Commandments from God and other basic legislation concerning the people’s behavior code and worship.

Leviticus (from Levi, ancestor of the priestly tribe) contains a series of regulations that would govern the people’s worship and set them apart as consecrated to God. The holocaust, peace offerings, and various laws of purification are among the many elements that assure their continued holiness and fidelity.

Numbers begins with a census of the people which God commands Moses to do. It goes on to recount their history in the wilderness for thirty-nine years, as a punishment for their rebellion and lack of faith, and ends with their approach to the Promised Land on the plains of Moab.

Deuteronomy (from the Greek, meaning “second law”) contains the final three discourses of Moses to the people. They are a repetition of the Sinaitic covenant for the benefit of the new generation whose parents had died in the desert, and they particularly stress the fidelity that Yahweh has had for them, the great commandment of loving God above all things (see Deuteronomy 6:4-5), and a final exhortation to obedience. The book ends with the death of Moses on the plains of Moab.

Historical Books of the Bible

Joshua describes the conquest of Palestine under the leadership of Joshua, who was appointed by Moses to govern the people after his death. Among the battles the book recounts are the conquests of Jericho and Ai. After these victories Joshua divides the land among the tribes of Israel. The book ends with his exhortation to the people to be faithful to God’s covenant with them.

Judges recounts the actions of certain leaders whom God raises up to liberate the people from the oppression of their Canaanite neighbors. The attacks of these enemies are in retribution for the people’s lack of obedience to the covenant and for their worship of false gods. When the people repent, God sends them a liberator or judge. Among the most famous judges are Gideon, Deborah, Jephthah, Samson, and Samuel.

Ruth tells the story of the great-grandmother of King David, who leaves her home in Moab to become a Hebrew convert. This brief and moving narrative highlights the virtues of honesty and fidelity, along with the value of family love.

1 and 2 Samuel narrate the events leading to the establishment of the monarchy in Israel. Samuel, the last of the judges, anoints Saul as the first king; he later anoints David after Saul disobeys God. The Book of 2 Samuel deals more particularly with the reign of David, his accomplishments as well as his sins. It also contains one of the most famous messianic prophecies, which speaks of a son of David who will inherit an everlasting kingdom (see 2 Samuel 7:12-16).

1 and 2 Kings cover the history of King Solomon’s reign, with both his accomplishments and his infidelities, and the division of his kingdom after his death. They continue with the history of the kings of the south (Judah) and the kings of the north (Israel), presenting each one according to his fidelity or disobedience to the covenant. The books narrate the destruction of Israel and deportation of the people to Assyria in 722 B.C., and they end with the destruction of Jerusalem and deportation of the people to Babylon in 587 B.C.

1 and 2 Chronicles summarize the history of salvation from the beginning of mankind until the exile of the people to Babylon. Written to encourage and instruct those who have just returned from Babylon, they particularly emphasize the kingship of David and the messianic promise given to him, the importance of worship in the Temple, the distribution of lands by Joshua to the tribes, and the judgment of the kings of Judah according to their fidelity or disobedience to the covenant.

Ezra and Nehemiah recount the works of Ezra, a scribe learned in the law, and Nehemiah, governor of Jerusalem, both of whom are sent by the Persian King Artaxerxes to assist the people toward the middle of the fifth century B.C. Both men contribute to the reestablishment of worship and civic life in Jerusalem. They insist upon the strict fulfillment of the Mosaic covenant in the daily lives of those who have returned from exile in Babylon.

Tobit is the story of a family living in Nineveh, the capital city of Assyria, and how the Archangel Raphael assists them in their personal difficulties. The book highlights the virtues of faith, hope, and marital chastity. The Semitic original of this book has been lost, and most of our current text comes from the Septuagint version.

Judith is the story of a Jewish widow who liberates her people from an Assyrian siege on her town by killing the general of the Assyrian army. Many in the Church consider her to be a type of Mary, the mother of Jesus, who conquered Satan, the enemy of mankind. The Semitic original of this book has been lost, but the text has been reconstructed from Latin and Greek sources.

Esther narrates the story of a lovely Jewish woman who becomes the wife of the Persian king. Esther saves the Jewish people from destruction by revealing a plot against the king. This event is commemorated by the feast of Purim, mentioned in the book as the day that had been set for the Jews’ destruction.

1 and 2 Maccabees narrate the persecution of the people by Antiochus IV, a ruler who wants to impose the Greek religion and customs on Palestine, and the subsequent struggles of the people against him. It describes the faith and military exploits of the Maccabees - namely, Matathias and his sons Judas, Jonathan, and Simon. The second book has great doctrinal importance, since it contains such teachings as the creation of all things from nothing (ex nihilo), the value of prayer for the dead, and the resurrection of the just.


Wisdom and Poetical Books

As a literary form, wisdom writing goes back to the earliest times of the Hebrew people. It consists of reflections on God’s love for man and His intervention in the events of history to enlighten and guide man to happiness. King Solomon was known for his knowledge and wisdom, at least in the first part of his reign, and it appears that many later wisdom writings were drawn from his ideas and sayings.

Job addresses the universal problem of the suffering of the just man: If God is good, why must the just man suffer? The book, in the form of a turbulent dialogue between Job and three of his friends, and finally with God Himself, gives no complete solution to the question. Job submits to God’s inscrutable justice and mercy, and his health and fortune are restored.

The Psalms are a collection of 150 hymns used both for individual prayer and for the celebrations and feasts of the people at various times in their history. They were composed by various writers, including King David. With great depth of thought and expression of feeling, they have many different themes, including praise, thanksgiving, lamentation, instruction, and prophecy. Some of the psalms are considered messianic because they refer to the king of Israel and to the Anointed One to come - such as Psalms 2, 16, 22, 72, and 110. The hallel psalms (111-18) were traditionally used at the Passover meal and were surely sung by Christ and His disciples at the Last Supper. Christ quotes from Psalm 22 while dying on the Cross: “My God, my God, why has thou forsaken me?”

Proverbs is a series of popular sayings and maxims collected over several centuries, and which give advice on such virtues as order, prudence, honesty, and temperance. In some chapters wisdom is presented as dwelling with God; this will have a resonance in New Testament writings, especially the first chapter of John’s Gospel.

Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth) gives a number of reflections on the vanity of earthly things, such as knowledge, pleasure, riches, and human strivings. Like the Book of Job, it gives no answer to the question of man’s frustration on earth and the seeming meaninglessness of life. But in not providing an answer, it opens the soul to a greater revelation.

The Song of Songs is the story of a simple country shepherdess who resists the approaches of a great king (perhaps referring to Solomon) in order to remain faithful to her young husband, a shepherd himself who is away on a journey. This beautiful book has been interpreted on many levels: the greatness of marriage and the love of spouses for each other; the steadfast love of Yahweh for His people and the corresponding love of a faithful remnant of the people who remained true to Him; and, in the New Testament, the love of Jesus Christ for His Bride, the Church, and her love for Him.

Wisdom of Solomon is probably the last book of the Wisdom literature to be written. It stresses the need for an upright heart and the role of wisdom in the history of the chosen people and in the lives of the just men who know God. In a magnificent text (3:1-8), it affirms the immortality of the soul and the ultimate reward to be given to the just man. This book, written on the threshold of the Christian era, provides many quotes and ideas to New Testament writers, especially to Saint John and Saint Paul.

Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) was originally written in Hebrew by Ben Sirach in Palestine, but later his grandson translated it into Greek for the Jews dwelling in Egypt. It contains many traditional teachings related to the law and highlights the importance of a good, moral life, particularly in the areas of work and family. Wisdom is also presented as a person, reaching its highest form of expression in chapter 24, with images that many would later apply to Christ and His mother.

The Prophetical Books

The prophets transmitted God’s Word to the people. This Word could be in the form of a judgment, a threat of retribution, or a hopeful promise of liberation. They often preached that a faithful remnant would be saved from all the punishments and purifications that the people endured.

The Major Prophets

Isaiah, written by a priest of that name in the eighth century B.C., contains two major sets of prophecies: the book of judgments (1-39), consisting of oracles about Judah and Jerusalem, along with apocalyptic passages; and the book of consolation (40-66), consisting of oracles about the people’s liberation from exile in Babylon and the rebuilding of Jerusalem, along with its glorious future. It is the most quoted Old Testament book in the New Testament and, among other things, contains the famous prophecy of the virgin birth (7:14), the gifts of the Messiah (11:2-3), the poem of the suffering servant who expiates for his people (52:13-53:12), the description of the New Jerusalem (62), and the coming messianic age in which all the nations will share (66).

Jeremiah, born a century after Isaiah, preaches in Judah for forty years and remains faithful to his vocation until after the fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C. Despite intense personal suffering and rejection by the people, he opposes alliances with foreign powers and preaches an absolute faith in Yahweh and His covenant. He stresses frequently the importance of true interior worship, as distinct from a merely external one (7:21; 17:27). He predicts a New Covenant that will be written in the heart (31:31-34). Many consider him to be a type of Christ and His sufferings.

Lamentations is a series of five poems lamenting the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple (587 B.C.). These poems stress the reality and justice of God’s punishment of the people for their abandonment of Him. The author is uncertain, though the influence of Jeremiah’s preaching is clear.

Baruch, a disciple of Jeremiah, writes the reflections and prayers contained in this book. It stresses the importance of repentance in order to receive God’s forgiveness, and the foolishness of idol worship. The book ends by announcing the end of the exile and the return to Jerusalem.

Ezekiel contains the oracles of the chief prophet among the exiles in Babylon. These oracles combine the messages of repentance for past sins and hope in God’s mercy. In the first part of the book, written before the exile, he predicts the destruction of Jerusalem and the punishment of the people. In the second part, he consoles and encourages the people with various apocalyptic visions and oracles such as the field of dry bones (37:1-14), the New Covenant (34:25), and the new temple (40).

Daniel discusses the history and prophecy of Daniel, who is transported as a child to Babylon. He achieves great prestige at the Babylonian court by his wisdom and the ability to interpret dreams. The first part of the book contains his interpretation of the king’s dreams, which predict the four successive kingdoms that will precede the messianic age. The second part contains four apocalyptic visions that refer to the persecution of the people and the coming of the Messiah. The famous stories of Daniel in the lion’s den, the chaste Susannah, and Bel and the dragon are also found in this book.

The Twelve Minor Prophets

Before the fall of the kingdom of Israel (722 B.C.) Amos, earliest of the prophets, is called from shepherding his flocks near Bethlehem in order to denounce the sins of the people of the northern kingdom, particularly for worshipping at the schismatic shrine of Bethel. He offers hope to those who repent.

Hosea is a prophet of the northern kingdom. He describes the people’s betrayal of the covenant in terms of adultery, prostitution, and fornication. Yahweh is the offended spouse who must punish His unfaithful bride - Israel - so that she may return to Him.

Micah predicts the judgment of God upon the people, warning that the day of Yahweh is near. At the same time, he predicts that a remnant of the people will be purified, and that the eternal Ruler will be born in Bethlehem (5:2).

From the fall of the kingdom of Israel to the fall of Judah (587 B.C.), Zephaniah prophesies in the time of Josiah, king of Judah. He predicts the coming of the day of Yahweh, urges both Judah and the pagan nations to repent, and refers to the salvation of a remnant of the people who are faithful.

Nahum predicts the fall of the people’s greatest enemy, Assyria, in just punishment for its sins. Its capital, Nineveh, fell in 612 B.C.

Habakkuk poses the question of God’s justice as the Babylonians threaten to destroy Jerusalem. He ends with a prayer of hope and abandonment to God’s mercy.

After the return of the exiles from Babylon (537 B.C.) Joel describes the day of Yahweh as a plague of locusts, along with a cosmic disaster at the end of time. The book is apocalyptic in content and style. It also predicts the outpouring of the Spirit upon God’s people in the messianic era (2:28-32, RSVCE). This text is quoted by Saint Peter in his preaching to the crowds at Pentecost (see Acts 2:16-21).

Obadiah, the shortest book of the minor prophets (only twenty-one verses), tells of the chastisement of the Edomites, who have earlier participated in the sack of Jerusalem. Obadiah also refers to the victory of Israel and the coming of the messianic age.

Jonah speaks of the attempted flight of the prophet from his mission of preaching repentance and conversion to the Assyrians in Nineveh. In the end, after spending three days in the belly of a whale, Jonah fulfills his mission. Jesus uses the story of Jonah to refer to the three days that He would spend in the tomb (see Matthew 12:39-40).

Haggai is the first of the post-exilic prophets. His main purpose is to encourage the returning people in renewing their fidelity to God and in the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem.

Zechariah, through a series of visions, also encourages the rebuilding of the Temple, but he adds many prophecies pertaining to the messianic era, including verses about the king entering Jerusalem on a donkey (9:9-10), and the piercing of the Savior (12:10).

Malachi encourages the rebuilding of Jerusalem, and is probably a contemporary of Ezra and Nehemiah. He denounces several lax customs of the people, and in 1:11 speaks of the coming of a universal and pure sacrifice, which the Magisterium of the Church has interpreted to be the sacrifice of the Mass.


The New Testament

The Gospels (“Good News”) are faithful accounts of the words and deeds of Jesus Christ, the Messiah of Israel and Savior of the world. The apostolic origin and historical content of these books have always been maintained by the Catholic Church.

Each evangelist presented the story of Jesus’ life according to the needs of his readers, whether they were of Jewish or Gentile background. The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are called “synoptic” (from a Greek word meaning “one view”) because of their many similarities in content and style, even though there are certain differences among them because of their audience and purpose.

The Gospel according to Saint Matthew was written first in Aramaic, though that text has been lost. The Greek translation was written before the destruction of Jerusalem (70 A.D.) and traditionally has been considered to be the same as the original. It was written for an audience of Jewish Christians. Its main themes are that Jesus is truly the Messiah announced by the prophets; that His kingdom will last until the end of time; and that He established a visible Church, with Peter and his successors at the head (16:18-19).

The Gospel according to Saint Mark has traditionally been considered to represent the catechesis of Saint Peter in Rome. For this reason, his Gospel highlights the miracles of Christ in order to help Roman Christians and proselytes to appreciate Jesus’ divinity - that He is truly the Son of God and Lord of all creation. It is the briefest of the Gospels.

The Gospel according to Saint Luke emphasizes many aspects of Christ’s life that would be helpful for sustaining the faith of the first Gentile Christians of the Hellenistic world. Saint Luke’s main themes are the salvation that Jesus Christ brings for all men, His birth and childhood, the importance of prayer and joy, and the role of Mary, His mother, and the other holy women. His prologue reveals his careful research and contacts with eyewitnesses of Christ’s life, in order to present an orderly account of His words and actions.

The Gospel according to Saint John was written by the disciple “whom Jesus loved” (13:23) and was most likely destined for Christians living in Asia Minor at the end of the first century. It clearly asserts that Christ was both human and divine. Characteristics of John’s Gospel are the prologue, which speaks of the Eternal Word (Logos); the use of strong, symbolic images like light and darkness, life and death, etc.; great emphasis on Jesus’ love for His disciples at the Last Supper along with His words to them; and finally, the appearances and powerful message of the risen Christ. It records miracles and discourses of Christ not contained in the other three Gospel accounts.

The Acts of the Apostles forms a literary and narrative unity with the third Gospel, and was most likely written by Saint Luke as well. It covers the expansion of the Church from Jerusalem to the various parts of the Roman Empire. Sometimes called “the Gospel of the Holy Spirit,” the book describes the great event of Pentecost, the life of the early Christians, the martyrdom of Saint Stephen, the apostolate of Saint Peter, the Council of Jerusalem, and the missionary journeys of Saint Paul ending with his first imprisonment in Rome. It was probably written between the years 62 and 64.

Letters of Saint Paul

These letters were written to instruct, encourage, and correct the first Christian communities located in parts of Asia and in Europe. Many of these communities were founded by Saint Paul himself. The letters were composed between the years 50 and 67 (the year of Saint Paul’s death) and are closely linked to his missionary journeys and his captivity in Rome.

Pre-Captivity Letters
1 and 2 Thessalonians were written to clarify certain misconceptions about the second coming of Christ (Greek. parousia) and to encourage the people to continue working and to carry on normal lives even in the midst of hardship. He also defends himself against some of his detractors who deny the supernatural character of his mission.

1 and 2 Corinthians were written to correct certain abuses that had arisen among Christians in Corinth, a cosmopolitan port city of Greece noted for its vices. Among other messages, Paul affirms the need for chaste living, gives criteria about the celebration of the agape (i.e., the Eucharist), extols the great virtue of charity (see 1 Corinthians 13), and clarifies points about the resurrection of the dead. In the second letter, he defends his reputation against certain groups that are undermining his message among the Corinthians.

In Galatians, Paul defends his apostolic authority and teaching against the ideas of the Judaizers, groups of Jewish Christians from Palestine who are teaching that the converts should be circumcised and follow the Mosaic law. He speaks of the priority of faith in Christ and the freedom that Christ has gained for us.

Romans is the largest and most doctrinally significant of Paul’s letters. There is a dogmatic part (1-11) and a moral part (12-16). The key teaching in the first part is justification: both Jew and Gentile are in need of salvation, which is obtained through faith in Christ and the life of grace. Divine sonship (8:14-17), one clear result of the life of grace, is closely connected with freedom (8:15) and has an uplifting effect on all of creation (8:18-25). In the second part of the letter, he stresses that Christians should be characterized by humility and obedience to lawful authority.

The Captivity Letters

Written during Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (61-63 A.D.)

In Ephesians, Paul begins by proclaiming that God’s eternal plan of redemption is for everyone, with Christ Himself as the cornerstone. He later stresses the importance of unity and faith in the lives of believers. He particularly emphasizes marriage and the union between husband and wife, which is intimately connected to the union of Christ with His Church (5:21-33).

In Philippians, Paul gives thanks for the hospitality he has received in Philippi, and he encourages the people to continue in their good works. He uses the example of an athlete in training to urge them forward. In a very famous text (2:6-8) he describes the kenosis, or humiliation, of Christ, who has become one of us and has died for our salvation.

Colossians is an attempt to correct certain Judaizing tendencies that have arisen in the community of Colossae, as well as the overemphasis on angels as mediators between God and men. He asserts the absolute supremacy of Christ as Creator and Redeemer (1:15-18).

In Philemon, Paul writes in defense of a slave named Onesimus who has stolen something and has run away from his master Philemon, who is a Christian. He appeals to Philemon to receive back Onesimus with true forgiveness and charity.

Pastoral Letters

1 and 2 Timothy and Titus were written by Paul to his disciples Timothy and Titus, who were the bishops of Ephesus and Crete, respectively. He encourages them to lead virtuous lives and to transmit “sound doctrine” (see 1 Timothy 1:10) to the faithful while being vigilant against false teachings. Among the last letters that the apostle wrote, they are particularly important because they show the workings of the hierarchical structure of the Church at an early stage and the passing of authority from the apostles to their successors as bishops.

The Letter to the Hebrews is of disputed authorship, though Paul’s ideas and influences are evident. It was probably written for Jewish Christians who had been forced to leave Jerusalem, and who needed bolstering in the Christian faith. The letter highlights the role of Christ the High Priest and His covenant, showing its superiority to the old Hebrew priesthood and sacrifices.

The Catholic Letters

These letters are called “Catholic” (Gk. Katholika) because they apparently were directed to the faithful in general, in different parts of the world, and not to any community or geographic area in particular.

James is written for Jewish Christians of the Diaspora and encourages charity and care for the poor - without discrimination or seeking human respect. It clarifies that faith without works is dead (2:17) and that a man is justified by works and not by faith alone (2:24). (Martin Luther in the sixteenth century would reject this letter largely because of this teaching.) There is also an important passage which shows the existence of the Sacrament of Anointing the Sick (5:14-15).

1 Peter calls for greater holiness of life among the Christians, encouraging them to act as “living stones” (2:5) built upon Christ the chief cornerstone (2:4). It reminds them that they are a holy nation and a royal priesthood (2:9), called to offer spiritual sacrifices for the glory of God and the redemption of men.

2 Peter refutes the errors of the Simonites and the Nicolaitans, who were forerunners of the heresy of Gnosticism. It also encourages Christians to be vigilant always, and to understand properly the nature of the second coming.

1 John begins with a statement of Christ’s divinity and goes on to speak of the importance of fraternal love - love for one’s neighbor must be united with love for God, who is Love (4:8). It has many connections with the fourth Gospel, in content, symbolism, and style.

2 John is addressed to the “elect lady and her children” (v. 1, probably referring to a specific Church) and encourages fraternal charity.

3 John is addressed to a certain Gaius, who is praised for his faith and charity.

Jude, with a message and language similar to 2 Peter, encourages Christians to practice both faith and charity, while condemning sensual and arrogant individuals who are disturbing Christians’ lives.

Revelation (or the Apocalypse) was written toward the end of the first century and has been traditionally attributed to Saint John the Apostle. Belonging to the genre of apocalyptic literature, it consists of a series of messages and warnings for people of all times. With a constant use of symbolic names and numbers, the book describes the great battle waged between Christ and Satan throughout time. It ends with the definitive destruction of Satan and the establishment of the heavenly Jerusalem (21). The book of Revelation provides a message of hope to all who believe in Christ throughout history, particularly in the face of persecution and sufferings.